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In statistics and applications of statistics, normalization can have a range of meanings. In the simplest cases, normalization of ratings means adjusting values measured on different scales to a notionally common scale, often prior to averaging. In more complicated cases, normalization may refer to more sophisticated a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normalization_%28statistics%29 |
In mathematics, a unit vector in a normed vector space is a vector (often a spatial vector) of length 1. A unit vector is often denoted by a lowercase letter with a circumflex, or "hat", as in
$$
\hat{\mathbf{v}}
$$
(pronounced "v-hat"). The term normalized vector is sometimes used as a synonym for unit vector.
The n... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_vector |
In theoretical physics and mathematical physics, analytical mechanics, or theoretical mechanics is a collection of closely related formulations of classical mechanics. Analytical mechanics uses scalar properties of motion representing the system as a whole—usually its kinetic energy and potential energy. The equations ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_mechanics |
In database theory, the PACELC design principle is an extension to the CAP theorem. It states that in case of network partitioning (P) in a distributed computer system, one has to choose between availability (A) and consistency (C) (as per the CAP theorem), but else (E), even when the system is running normally in the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PACELC_design_principle |
In computer science, a binary search tree (BST), also called an ordered or sorted binary tree, is a rooted binary tree data structure with the key of each internal node being greater than all the keys in the respective node's left subtree and less than the ones in its right subtree. The time complexity of operations on... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_search_tree |
The P versus NP problem is a major unsolved problem in theoretical computer science. Informally, it asks whether every problem whose solution can be quickly verified can also be quickly solved.
Here, "quickly" means an algorithm exists that solves the task and runs in polynomial time (as opposed to, say, exponential ti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P_versus_NP_problem |
Distributed computing is a field of computer science that studies distributed systems, defined as computer systems whose inter-communicating components are located on different networked computers.
The components of a distributed system communicate and coordinate their actions by passing messages to one another in ord... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_computing |
Feedforward refers to recognition-inference architecture of neural networks. Artificial neural network architectures are based on inputs multiplied by weights to obtain outputs (inputs-to-output): feedforward. Recurrent neural networks, or neural networks with loops allow information from later processing stages to fee... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feedforward_neural_network |
In mathematics, computable numbers are the real numbers that can be computed to within any desired precision by a finite, terminating algorithm. They are also known as the recursive numbers, effective numbers, computable reals, or recursive reals. The concept of a computable real number was introduced by Émile Borel in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computable_number |
In computer science, a red–black tree is a self-balancing binary search tree data structure noted for fast storage and retrieval of ordered information. The nodes in a red-black tree hold an extra "color" bit, often drawn as red and black, which help ensure that the tree is always approximately balanced.
When the tree ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%E2%80%93black_tree |
A clustered file system (CFS) is a file system which is shared by being simultaneously mounted on multiple servers. There are several approaches to clustering, most of which do not employ a clustered file system (only direct attached storage for each node). Clustered file systems can provide features like location-in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clustered_file_system |
In computer science (specifically computational complexity theory), the worst-case complexity measures the resources (e.g. running time, memory) that an algorithm requires given an input of arbitrary size (commonly denoted as in asymptotic notation). It gives an upper bound on the resources required by the algorithm.
... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worst-case_complexity |
Self-supervised learning (SSL) is a paradigm in machine learning where a model is trained on a task using the data itself to generate supervisory signals, rather than relying on externally-provided labels. In the context of neural networks, self-supervised learning aims to leverage inherent structures or relationships ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-supervised_learning |
Combinatorics is an area of mathematics primarily concerned with counting, both as a means and as an end to obtaining results, and certain properties of finite structures. It is closely related to many other areas of mathematics and has many applications ranging from logic to statistical physics and from evolutionary b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorics |
MongoDB is a source-available, cross-platform, document-oriented database program. Classified as a NoSQL database product, MongoDB uses JSON-like documents with optional schemas. Released in February 2009 by 10gen (now MongoDB Inc.), it supports features like sharding, replication, and ACID transactions (from version 4... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MongoDB |
In classical electromagnetism, Ampère's circuital law (not to be confused with Ampère's force law) relates the circulation of a magnetic field around a closed loop to the electric current passing through the loop.
James Clerk Maxwell derived it using hydrodynamics in his 1861 published paper "On Physical Lines of Forc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amp%C3%A8re%27s_circuital_law |
Association rule learning is a rule-based machine learning method for discovering interesting relations between variables in large databases. It is intended to identify strong rules discovered in databases using some measures of interestingness. In any given transaction with a variety of items, association rules are me... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_rule_learning |
Electronics is a scientific and engineering discipline that studies and applies the principles of physics to design, create, and operate devices that manipulate electrons and other electrically charged particles. It is a subfield of physics and electrical engineering which uses active devices such as transistors, diode... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics |
In classical mechanics, Euler's laws of motion are equations of motion which extend Newton's laws of motion for point particle to rigid body motion. They were formulated by Leonhard Euler about 50 years after Isaac Newton formulated his laws.
## Overview
### Euler's first law
Euler's first law states that the rate of c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%27s_laws_of_motion |
Synthetic geometry (sometimes referred to as axiomatic geometry or even pure geometry) is geometry without the use of coordinates. It relies on the axiomatic method for proving all results from a few basic properties initially called postulates, and at present called axioms.
After the 17th-century introduction by Ren... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_geometry |
The zeroth law of thermodynamics is one of the four principal laws of thermodynamics. It provides an independent definition of temperature without reference to entropy, which is defined in the second law. The law was established by Ralph H. Fowler in the 1930s, long after the first, second, and third laws had been wide... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeroth_law_of_thermodynamics |
Superconductivity is a set of physical properties observed in superconductors: materials where electrical resistance vanishes and magnetic fields are expelled from the material. Unlike an ordinary metallic conductor, whose resistance decreases gradually as its temperature is lowered, even down to near absolute zero, a ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductivity |
Version control (also known as revision control, source control, and source code management) is the software engineering practice of controlling, organizing, and tracking different versions in history of computer files; primarily source code text files, but generally any type of file.
Version control is a component of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Version_control |
The Big Bang is a physical theory that describes how the universe expanded from an initial state of high density and temperature. Various cosmological models based on the Big Bang concept explain a broad range of phenomena, including the abundance of light elements, the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation, and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang |
A Fourier series () is an expansion of a periodic function into a sum of trigonometric functions. The Fourier series is an example of a trigonometric series. By expressing a function as a sum of sines and cosines, many problems involving the function become easier to analyze because trigonometric functions are well und... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_series |
Linear hashing (LH) is a dynamic data structure which implements a hash table and grows or shrinks one bucket at a time. It was invented by Witold Litwin in 1980.
It has been analyzed by Baeza-Yates and Soza-Pollman. It is the first in a number of schemes known as dynamic hashing
such as Larson's Linear Hashing with... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_hashing |
In mathematics, nonlinear programming (NLP) is the process of solving an optimization problem where some of the constraints are not linear equalities or the objective function is not a linear function. An optimization problem is one of calculation of the extrema (maxima, minima or stationary points) of an objective fun... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_programming |
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a reference model developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) that "provides a common basis for the coordination of standards development for the purpose of systems interconnection."
In the OSI reference model, the components of a communication s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI_model |
Alternative models to the Standard Higgs Model are models which are considered by many particle physicists to solve some of the Higgs boson's existing problems. Two of the most currently researched models are quantum triviality, and Higgs hierarchy problem.
## Overview
In particle physics, elementary particles and forc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternatives_to_the_Standard_Higgs_Model |
Linear programming (LP), also called linear optimization, is a method to achieve the best outcome (such as maximum profit or lowest cost) in a mathematical model whose requirements and objective are represented by linear relationships. Linear programming is a special case of mathematical programming (also known as math... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_programming |
In behavioral psychology, reinforcement refers to consequences that increase the likelihood of an organism's future behavior, typically in the presence of a particular antecedent stimulus. For example, a rat can be trained to push a lever to receive food whenever a light is turned on; in this example, the light is the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement |
In linear algebra, a generalized eigenvector of an
$$
n\times n
$$
matrix
$$
A
$$
is a vector which satisfies certain criteria which are more relaxed than those for an (ordinary) eigenvector.
Let
$$
V
$$
be an
$$
n
$$
-dimensional vector space and let
$$
A
$$
be the matrix representation of a linear map from
... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalized_eigenvector |
In computer programming, an inline assembler is a feature of some compilers that allows low-level code written in assembly language to be embedded within a program, among code that otherwise has been compiled from a higher-level language such as C or Ada.
## Motivation and alternatives
The embedding of assembly languag... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inline_assembler |
The atomic nucleus is the small, dense region consisting of protons and neutrons at the center of an atom, discovered in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford at the University of Manchester based on the 1909 Geiger–Marsden gold foil experiment. After the discovery of the neutron in 1932, models for a nucleus composed of protons ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_nucleus |
The word "mass" has two meanings in special relativity: invariant mass (also called rest mass) is an invariant quantity which is the same for all observers in all reference frames, while the relativistic mass is dependent on the velocity of the observer. According to the concept of mass–energy equivalence, invariant ma... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_in_special_relativity%23Relativistic_vs._rest_mass |
A search engine is a software system that provides hyperlinks to web pages and other relevant information on the Web in response to a user's query. The user inputs a query within a web browser or a mobile app, and the search results are often a list of hyperlinks, accompanied by textual summaries and images. Users also... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search_engine |
In mathematics, a complex number is an element of a number system that extends the real numbers with a specific element denoted , called the imaginary unit and satisfying the equation
$$
i^{2}= -1
$$
; every complex number can be expressed in the form
$$
a + bi
$$
, where and are real numbers. Because no real numbe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number |
In probability theory and statistics, the binomial distribution with parameters and is the discrete probability distribution of the number of successes in a sequence of independent experiments, each asking a yes–no question, and each with its own Boolean-valued outcome: success (with probability ) or failure (with p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_distribution |
In mathematics, a manifold is a topological space that locally resembles Euclidean space near each point. More precisely, an
$$
n
$$
-dimensional manifold, or -manifold for short, is a topological space with the property that each point has a neighborhood that is homeomorphic to an open subset of
$$
n
$$
-dimensional... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manifold |
Coalesced hashing, also called coalesced chaining, is a strategy of collision resolution in a hash table that forms a hybrid of separate chaining and open addressing.
## Separate chaining hash table
In a separate chaining hash table, items that hash to the same address are placed on a list (or "chain") at that address.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalesced_hashing |
Deep learning is a subset of machine learning that focuses on utilizing multilayered neural networks to perform tasks such as classification, regression, and representation learning. The field takes inspiration from biological neuroscience and is centered around stacking artificial neurons into layers and "training" th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_learning%23Deep_neural_networks |
In graph theory, the shortest path problem is the problem of finding a path between two vertices (or nodes) in a graph such that the sum of the weights of its constituent edges is minimized.
The problem of finding the shortest path between two intersections on a road map may be modeled as a special case of the shortest... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortest_path_problem |
In lab experiments that study chaos theory, approaches designed to control chaos are based on certain observed system behaviors. Any chaotic attractor contains an infinite number of unstable, periodic orbits. Chaotic dynamics, then, consists of a motion where the system state moves in the neighborhood of one of these o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_of_chaos |
In physics, Newtonian dynamics (also known as Newtonian mechanics) is the study of the dynamics of a particle or a small body according to Newton's laws of motion.
## Mathematical generalizations
Typically, the Newtonian dynamics occurs in a three-dimensional Euclidean space, which is flat. However, in mathematics Newt... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newtonian_dynamics |
In mathematics, a dynamical system is a system in which a function describes the time dependence of a point in an ambient space, such as in a parametric curve.
## Examples
include the mathematical models that describe the swinging of a clock pendulum, the flow of water in a pipe, the random motion of particles in the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamical_system |
In mathematics, a basic algebraic operation is any one of the common operations of elementary algebra, which include addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, raising to a whole number power, and taking roots (fractional power). These operations may be performed on numbers, in which case they are often called ar... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_operation |
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the capability of computational systems to perform tasks typically associated with human intelligence, such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and decision-making. It is a field of research in computer science that develops and studies methods and software that e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence |
Fault tree analysis (FTA) is a type of failure analysis in which an undesired state of a system is examined. This analysis method is mainly used in safety engineering and reliability engineering to understand how systems can fail, to identify the best ways to reduce risk and to determine (or get a feeling for) event ra... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault_tree_analysis |
Introduction to Solid State Physics, known colloquially as Kittel, is a classic condensed matter physics textbook written by American physicist Charles Kittel in 1953. The book has been highly influential and has seen widespread adoption; Marvin L. Cohen remarked in 2019 that Kittel's content choices in the original ed... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Solid_State_Physics |
In probability theory, the expected value (also called expectation, expectancy, expectation operator, mathematical expectation, mean, expectation value, or first moment) is a generalization of the weighted average. Informally, the expected value is the mean of the possible values a random variable can take, weighted by... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expected_value |
In abstract algebra, a branch of mathematics, a simple ring is a non-zero ring that has no two-sided ideal besides the zero ideal and itself. In particular, a commutative ring is a simple ring if and only if it is a field.
The center of a simple ring is necessarily a field. It follows that a simple ring is an associati... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_ring |
A parallel database system seeks to improve performance through parallelization of various operations, such as loading data, building indexes and evaluating queries. Although data may be stored in a distributed fashion, the distribution is governed solely by performance considerations. Parallel databases improve proces... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_database |
Complex dynamics, or holomorphic dynamics, is the study of dynamical systems obtained by iterating a complex analytic mapping. This article focuses on the case of algebraic dynamics, where a polynomial or rational function is iterated. In geometric terms, that amounts to iterating a mapping from some algebraic variety ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_dynamics |
Electrostatics is a branch of physics that studies slow-moving or stationary electric charges.
Since classical times, it has been known that some materials, such as amber, attract lightweight particles after rubbing. The Greek word (), meaning 'amber', was thus the root of the word electricity. Electrostatic phenomena... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatics |
Number theory is a branch of pure mathematics devoted primarily to the study of the integers and arithmetic functions. Number theorists study prime numbers as well as the properties of mathematical objects constructed from integers (for example, rational numbers), or defined as generalizations of the integers (for exam... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_theory |
QUEEN - Quantum Entangled Enhanced Network
Quantum Entangled Enhanced Networks - QUEEN form an important element of quantum computing and quantum communication systems. Quantum networks facilitate the transmission of information in the form of quantum bits, also called qubits, between physically separated quantum proc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_network |
In probability theory and statistics, a Markov chain or Markov process is a stochastic process describing a sequence of possible events in which the probability of each event depends only on the state attained in the previous event. Informally, this may be thought of as, "What happens next depends only on the state of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markov_chain |
Quantum engineering is the development of technology that capitalizes on the laws of quantum mechanics. This type of engineering uses quantum mechanics to develop technologies such as quantum sensors and quantum computers.
Devices that rely on quantum mechanical effects such as lasers, MRI imagers and transistors have ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_engineering |
System dynamics (SD) is an approach to understanding the nonlinear behaviour of complex systems over time using stocks, flows, internal feedback loops, table functions and time delays.
## Overview
System dynamics is a methodology and mathematical modeling technique to frame, understand, and discuss complex issues and p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_dynamics |
Spiking neural networks (SNNs) are artificial neural networks (ANN) that mimic natural neural networks. These models leverage timing of discrete spikes as the main information carrier.
In addition to neuronal and synaptic state, SNNs incorporate the concept of time into their operating model. The idea is that neurons i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiking_neural_network |
Heisenberg's uncertainty relation is one of the fundamental results in quantum mechanics. Later Robertson proved the uncertainty relation for two general non-commuting observables, which was strengthened by Schrödinger. However, the conventional uncertainty relation like the Robertson-Schrödinger relation cannot give a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stronger_uncertainty_relations |
Topological geometry deals with incidence structures consisting of a point set
$$
P
$$
and a family
$$
\mathfrak{L}
$$
of subsets of
$$
P
$$
called lines or circles etc. such that both
$$
P
$$
and
$$
\mathfrak{L}
$$
carry a topology and all geometric operations like joining points by a line or intersecting li... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_geometry |
The uncertainty principle, also known as Heisenberg's indeterminacy principle, is a fundamental concept in quantum mechanics. It states that there is a limit to the precision with which certain pairs of physical properties, such as position and momentum, can be simultaneously known. In other words, the more accurately ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncertainty_principle |
Mac is a brand of personal computers designed and marketed by Apple since 1984. The name is short for Macintosh (its official name until 1999), a reference to the McIntosh apple. The current product lineup includes the MacBook Air and MacBook Pro laptops, and the iMac, Mac Mini, Mac Studio, and Mac Pro desktops. Macs a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_%28computer%29 |
A recursive neural network is a kind of deep neural network created by applying the same set of weights recursively over a structured input, to produce a structured prediction over variable-size input structures, or a scalar prediction on it, by traversing a given structure in topological order. These networks were fir... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recursive_neural_network |
In probability theory and ergodic theory, a
### Markov operator
is an operator on a certain function space that conserves the mass (the so-called Markov property). If the underlying measurable space is topologically sufficiently rich enough, then the Markov operator admits a kernel representation. Markov operators ca... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markov_operator |
Cross-site request forgery, also known as one-click attack or session riding and abbreviated as CSRF (sometimes pronounced sea-surf) or XSRF, is a type of malicious exploit of a website or web application where unauthorized commands are submitted from a user that the web application trusts. There are many ways in which... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-site_request_forgery |
In computer science, a generator is a routine that can be used to control the iteration behaviour of a loop. All generators are also iterators. A generator is very similar to a function that returns an array, in that a generator has parameters, can be called, and generates a sequence of values. However, instead of buil... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generator_%28computer_programming%29 |
In mathematics, an autonomous system or autonomous differential equation is a system of ordinary differential equations which does not explicitly depend on the independent variable. When the variable is time, they are also called time-invariant systems.
Many laws in physics, where the independent variable is usually as... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_system_%28mathematics%29 |
In computing, virtual memory, or virtual storage, is a memory management technique that provides an "idealized abstraction of the storage resources that are actually available on a given machine" which "creates the illusion to users of a very large (main) memory".
The computer's operating system, using a combination of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_memory |
A spacetime diagram is a graphical illustration of locations in space at various times, especially in the special theory of relativity. Spacetime diagrams can show the geometry underlying phenomena like time dilation and length contraction without mathematical equations.
The history of an object's location through time... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetime_diagram |
Maxwell's equations, or Maxwell–Heaviside equations, are a set of coupled partial differential equations that, together with the Lorentz force law, form the foundation of classical electromagnetism, classical optics, electric and magnetic circuits.
The equations provide a mathematical model for electric, optical, and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations |
In universal algebra, a variety of algebras or equational class is the class of all algebraic structures of a given signature satisfying a given set of identities. For example, the groups form a variety of algebras, as do the abelian groups, the rings, the monoids etc. According to Birkhoff's theorem, a class of algebr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_%28universal_algebra%29 |
Computable functions are the basic objects of study in computability theory. Informally, a function is computable if there is an algorithm that computes the value of the function for every value of its argument. Because of the lack of a precise definition of the concept of algorithm, every formal definition of computab... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computable_function |
In category theory, a branch of mathematics, a functor category
$$
D^C
$$
is a category where the objects are the functors
$$
F: C \to D
$$
and the morphisms are natural transformations
$$
\eta: F \to G
$$
between the functors (here,
$$
G: C \to D
$$
is another object in the category). Functor categories are of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functor_category |
CH is a proprietary cross-platform C and C++ interpreter and scripting language environment. It was designed by Harry Cheng as a scripting language for beginners to learn mathematics, computing, numerical analysis (numeric methods), and programming in C/C++. Ch is now developed and marketed by SoftIntegration, Inc.. F... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch_%28computer_programming%29 |
In physics, the special theory of relativity, or special relativity for short, is a scientific theory of the relationship between space and time. In Albert Einstein's 1905 paper, "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies", the theory is presented as being based on just two postulates:
1. The laws of physics are invarian... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_relativity |
In chemistry, orbital hybridisation (or hybridization) is the concept of mixing atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals (with different energies, shapes, etc., than the component atomic orbitals) suitable for the pairing of electrons to form chemical bonds in valence bond theory. For example, in a carbon atom which... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_hybridisation |
Scrum is an agile team collaboration framework commonly used in software development and other industries.
Scrum prescribes for teams to break work into goals to be completed within time-boxed iterations, called sprints. Each sprint is no longer than one month and commonly lasts two weeks. The scrum team assesses prog... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrum_%28software_development%29 |
In mathematical optimization, linear-fractional programming (LFP) is a generalization of linear programming (LP). Whereas the objective function in a linear program is a linear function, the objective function in a linear-fractional program is a ratio of two linear functions. A linear program can be regarded as a speci... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear-fractional_programming |
In computer science, counting sort is an algorithm for sorting a collection of objects according to keys that are small positive integers; that is, it is an integer sorting algorithm. It operates by counting the number of objects that possess distinct key values, and applying prefix sum on those counts to determine the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counting_sort |
Conversation threading is a feature used by many email clients, bulletin boards, newsgroups, and Internet forums in which the software aids the user by visually grouping messages with their replies. These groups are called a conversation, topic thread, or simply a thread. A discussion forum, e-mail client or news clien... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thread_%28online_communication%29 |
In machine learning, a deep belief network (DBN) is a generative graphical model, or alternatively a class of deep neural network, composed of multiple layers of latent variables ("hidden units"), with connections between the layers but not between units within each layer.
When trained on a set of examples without supe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_belief_network |
A dark galaxy is a hypothesized galaxy with no (or very few) stars. They received their name because they have no visible stars but may be detectable if they contain significant amounts of gas. Astronomers have long theorized the existence of dark galaxies, but there are no confirmed examples to date. Dark galaxies are... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_galaxy |
In object-oriented programming, "immutable interface" is a pattern for designing an immutable object. The immutable interface pattern involves defining a type which does not provide any methods which mutate state. Objects which are referenced by that type are not seen to have any mutable state, and appear immutable.
##... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immutable_interface |
Classification is the activity of assigning objects to some pre-existing classes or categories. This is distinct from the task of establishing the classes themselves (for example through cluster analysis). Examples include diagnostic tests, identifying spam emails and deciding whether to give someone a driving license.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification |
In computer science, a linked list is a linear collection of data elements whose order is not given by their physical placement in memory. Instead, each element points to the next. It is a data structure consisting of a collection of nodes which together represent a sequence. In its most basic form, each node contains ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linked_list |
Imitation learning is a paradigm in reinforcement learning, where an agent learns to perform a task by supervised learning from expert demonstrations. It is also called learning from demonstration and apprenticeship learning.
It has been applied to underactuated robotics, self-driving cars, quadcopter navigation, helic... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imitation_learning |
Logic in computer science covers the overlap between the field of logic and that of computer science. The topic can essentially be divided into three main areas:
-
## Theoretical foundations and analysis
- Use of computer technology to aid logicians
- Use of concepts from logic for computer applications
Theoretical fo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_in_computer_science |
A random variable (also called random quantity, aleatory variable, or stochastic variable) is a mathematical formalization of a quantity or object which depends on random events. The term 'random variable' in its mathematical definition refers to neither randomness nor variability but instead is a mathematical function... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_variable |
A communication protocol is a system of rules that allows two or more entities of a communications system to transmit information via any variation of a physical quantity. The protocol defines the rules, syntax, semantics, and synchronization of communication and possible error recovery methods. Protocols may be implem... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_protocol |
In information retrieval, Okapi BM25 (BM is an abbreviation of best matching) is a ranking function used by search engines to estimate the relevance of documents to a given search query. It is based on the probabilistic retrieval framework developed in the 1970s and 1980s by Stephen E. Robertson, Karen Spärck Jones, an... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okapi_BM25 |
Vector calculus or vector analysis is a branch of mathematics concerned with the differentiation and integration of vector fields, primarily in three-dimensional Euclidean space,
$$
\mathbb{R}^3.
$$
The term vector calculus is sometimes used as a synonym for the broader subject of multivariable calculus, which spans ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_calculus |
In computability theory, the Church–Turing thesis (also known as computability thesis, the Turing–Church thesis, the Church–Turing conjecture, Church's thesis, Church's conjecture, and Turing's thesis) is a thesis about the nature of computable functions. It states that a function on the natural numbers can be calcula... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church%E2%80%93Turing_thesis |
In mathematics, engineering, computer science and economics, an optimization problem is the problem of finding the best solution from all feasible solutions.
Optimization problems can be divided into two categories, depending on whether the variables are continuous or discrete:
- An optimization problem with discrete ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimization_problem |
In mathematics and theoretical computer science, a type theory is the formal presentation of a specific type system. Type theory is the academic study of type systems.
Some type theories serve as alternatives to set theory as a foundation of mathematics. Two influential type theories that have been proposed as foundat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_theory |
Theoretical physics is a branch of physics that employs mathematical models and abstractions of physical objects and systems to rationalize, explain, and predict natural phenomena. This is in contrast to experimental physics, which uses experimental tools to probe these phenomena.
The advancement of science generally d... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_physics |
In mathematics, a power series (in one variable) is an infinite series of the form
$$
\sum_{n=0}^\infty a_n \left(x - c\right)^n = a_0 + a_1 (x - c) + a_2 (x - c)^2 + \dots
$$
where represents the coefficient of the nth term and c is a constant called the center of the series. Power series are useful in mathematical a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_series |
Numerical Recipes is the generic title of a series of books on algorithms and numerical analysis by William H. Press, Saul A. Teukolsky, William T. Vetterling and Brian P. Flannery. In various editions, the books have been in print since 1986. The most recent edition was published in 2007.
## Overview
The Numerical Re... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_Recipes |
In computer science, a graph is an abstract data type that is meant to implement the undirected graph and directed graph concepts from the field of graph theory within mathematics.
A graph data structure consists of a finite (and possibly mutable) set of vertices (also called nodes or points), together with a set of un... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_%28abstract_data_type%29 |
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